Background Research

Past Research:

For the past three decades, considerable amounts of research and attention have been directed toward enhancing women's participation in careers that require more than basic mathematics. In fact, the number of women choosing to major in fields that require mathematics has increased significantly since 1970. Nevertheless, the number of women completing majors in such fields remains low (Jacobs, Finken, Griffin, & Wright, 1998).

Evidence shows that women drop out of mathematics at a higher rate than men, even when they are equally well prepared, particularly in the early years of their undergraduate careers. Women cite a variety of reasons for dropping out of mathematics and related fields. As the focus in upper level mathematics narrows, some women report being turned away by the very qualities that attract them in the first place (Stage & Maple, 1996).

Others dislike the competitiveness of mathematics courses, even to the extent that they avoid public interaction with their teachers during class sessions that involve competition (Hart, 1989; Peterson & Fennema, 1985). Women also feel alienated by the manner in which subject matter is conveyed, and express anger when faced with stereotypes of females as being less serious students than males (Fennema & Hart, 1994). But most of all, women describe a growing frustration with the seeming lack of connection between mathematics and the world surrounding them.

Not surprisingly, many of these observations coincide with research about women's ways of learning conducted by feminist scholars such as Belenky and Clinchy (1986). Social and cultural factors also affect women's attitudes toward mathematics. Because social norms tend to reinforce preconceptions that mathematics is a male field, women in mathematics must confront questions of gender roles and personal identity, as well as a sense of invisibility in a predominantly male field. Consequently, researchers have found that women in particular are sensitive to support features that may make their school environments appear less hostile (Stage & Maple, 1996).

Research also suggests that peers play important roles in women's experiences in majors that require higher mathematics. Having friends who share an interest in mathematics is important for females, because friends provide a sense of solidarity, support, and added visibility (Baker & Leary, 1995). If women cannot find peer support for taking mathematics, they often change their majors (Beal, 1994).

An intervention directed at changing social norms promises to reverse some of these circumstances. Psychosocial factors combine with social norms in creating perceived barriers to women's participation in mathematics. Even highly talented females report less self efficacy than males when completing mathematical tasks (Seegers & Boekaerts, 1996). Previous experience, previous achievement, attitudes of peers, and the value society places on women learning mathematics affect females' decisions to enroll and remain in mathematics courses (Ethington, 1992).

Research suggests that when women do pursue fields that require mathematics, they often do so because of successful early childhood experiences with parents or interested teachers (Hart, 1992; Jacobs, Finken, Griffin, & Wright, 1998). Most can name a particular person or persons responsible for their interest in their major. Without such individual mentoring, they would not have made it into the pipeline. Similarly, many women who succeed in undergraduate mathematics courses credit support networks and study groups created by faculty and administrators (Stage & Maple, 1996). These supports helped them to solve problems and share information.

The above data indicate that women might do best in settings which provide mentoring and support as well as in environments that de-emphasize negative stereotypes concerning women's participation in mathematics. They might thrive instead in classes whose curriculum and pedagogy is congruent with women's ways of knowing, and in which women are visible as capable and powerful learners. In fact, the State University of New York at Potsdam has implemented a successful mathematics program along these lines (Rogers, 1990).

The program was recognized by the Mathematics Association of America because of the large number of mathematics majors (a majority of whom were women) it attracted and the variety and quality of the mathematics courses it offered. A team of researchers performed a qualitative study that examined why this undergraduate program was so successful with women. The researchers found a teaching staff that was especially sensitive to issues of gender and mathematics and had taken special care to provide support for female students.

The most interesting finding, however, pertained to the actual teaching of mathematics in the courses. The researchers were surprised to find a staff of 14 males and one female instructor; clearly, the instructor's gender was less important than her or his concern about students in general (Hart, 1992). Teaching techniques were at the core of the success of the Potsdam mathematics program (Rogers, 1990). Teachers worked with students so that they recreated the mathematics together. Students learned that they were able to reconstruct mathematical theories for themselves. All students were supported through a teaching style "true to the nature of mathematical inquiry." (top)

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